Manganese it participates as a catalyst in the synthesis of cholesterol and fatty acids. It nourishes the nerves and brain and maintains the production of sex hormones. This mineral is also important in the formation of urea and possibly that of blood.

Manganese is absorbed poorly and most of the absorption takes place in the intestinal tract. It is mostly concentrated in the bones, pancreas and liver. Excretion occurs through the feces and it is combined in the bile. High intakes of calcium will further depress the poor rate of absorption of manganese.

There are not reported cases of deficiency in humans and the need for this element is low. The adequate intake for manganese is 2 mg/day for adults and the average intake from a diet that includes good manganese rich food sources will adequately cover these needs.

Dietary or oral toxicity is extremely rare. However toxicity has been seen in individuals in manganese mines exposed to manganese dust. Upper level for this mineral is 11mg/day. Toxicity symptoms include violence, hallucinations, weakness, muscle control impairment, extreme irritability and psychiatric problems.

Before using manganese as a dietary supplement it is important to consult your health care provider. As with everything else it is important that you receive the right amounts of vitamins and minerals for the right reasons.

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Selenium enters the body in two major ionic forms, bound to derivatives of the amino acids cysteine and methionine - selenomethionine derived from plants and selenocysteine derived from animals. Bioavailability is high and 50 to 100% of selenium in the diet is absorbed. No mechanism appears to control its absorption and for this reason it has potential for toxicity. The liver and kidneys contain as much as five times the selenium as do muscles or other tissues.

Selenium balance in the body is achieved be excretion in the urine and feces however excretion in the face sit may indicate improper absorption. To day the most understood roles of this mineral are hat of a cofactor of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase and in thyroid hormone metabolism. As a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase selenium is vital in protecting the health of the heart cells and aid immune function. It works close with vitamin E in some of its metabolic actions and spares some of the body’s needs for vitamin E by reducing peroxide load in cells.

Selenium has the ability to reduce free radical production and prevent alteration in DNA and adequate intake of this mineral may be important in preventing cancer. Studies have shown significant reduction in the development of cancers such as colon, rectal, prostate and lungs. A new study is on its way, using vitamin E 400 IU and selenium supplements 200µg as part of the protocol for the protection against prostate cancer. These are excellent news for men’s health. The RDA for selenium is 55µg/day for adult men and women.

Symptoms of deficiency of the mineral in humans are muscle wasting, muscle pain, cardiomyopathy, keshan’s disease, accumulation of acid peroxides in the heart and kidney problems.
Deficiencies of this mineral are rare. The inclusion of foods in the diet of animal products as a good source of selenium is organ meat, meat, fish, eggs, and shellfish. Grains and nuts (especially Brazil nuts) and plants grown in soils that contain selenium are good plant sources.

Excess selenium can be toxic. Upper level for selenium is 400µg/day. Symptoms of selenium toxicity are hair loss, high blood concentration. Intakes of 1 to 3 mg for many months results in a garlicky odor of the breath, fatigue, diarrhea, skin rashes and even cirrhosis of the liver. It is important that you always seek the advice of you health care provider before you take supplements especially if you are taking prescription medication.

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Chromium is transported in the blood by transferrin an iron-binding protein. Concentration in human tissues is very low and the amount stored in the body decreases with age. Excretion of chromium occurs through urine and small amounts in the feces. The most well known function of this mineral is the maintenance of glucose uptake in to cells and enhances insulin action. It also aids the conversion of glucose in to fat. It may inhibit aortic plaque. Infants suffering from Kwashiorkor can benefit from oral administration

There is no Recommended Dietary Allowance for chromium but, based on the amount typically found in balance diets an adequate intake is 35 µg for men and 25µg/day for women. Intakes of less than 20µg/day it may detrimental to individuals that have marginally elevated blood glucose. Even a slight chromium deficiency can have very serious effects on the body. Lack of chromium in the soil where food grows and consumption of refined carbohydrates are contributing factor of deficiency in some individuals. Regular use of vitamin and/or mineral supplements can meet any shortfall.

Chromium is widely distributed in foods but in very small quantities. The most reliable sources are whole grains, organ meats, broccoli, nuts and legumes. Concentration of this mineral in foods it directly related to the amounts in the local soil. There is not known chromium toxicity from foods. It has been reported however in industrial settings where people are exposed to it and from chromium waste sites to suffer lung damage.

Poisoning from consuming large amounts can cause stomach ulcers, kidney problems, liver damage and even death. There are a few reports of adverse reactions particularly with use of chromium picolinate. Chromium picolinate a popular form of dietary supplement may lead to production of hydroxyl radicals. Those with hypoglycemia should exercise caution in the use of chromium supplements. Chromium (Cr3+) is an essential mineral while (Cr2+) and (Cr6+) are toxic.

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This trace mineral is also required for the production of the protective sheaths of myelin that surrounds nerve fibers. It is also necessary for the production RNA and the production of elastin, working together with vitamin C, an important component for all muscle fibers. Additionally, copper is necessary for bone formation and maintenance and participates in the function of the immune system and white and red cell maturation.

Approximately 15 to 75% of dietary cooper ingested is absorbed primarily in the stomach and duodenum. It is transported from the intestine first to the liver and kidneys and then from there to other organs. Little of this trace mineral is stored in the body and the highest concentrations are found in the liver, brain kidneys and heart. Muscles and bones have lower concentrations however because of their mass contain more than 50% of total copper in the body. The balance of copper in the body is maintained by excretion in the bile and feces and very little through urine.

Although copper deficiency is relatively unknown among those with greatest risk are preterm infants, children with iron-deficiency anemia and kidney patients undergoing dialysis. The estimated RDA for this mineral is 0.9 mg/day for adult men and women.
Like other essential trace minerals can be toxic when it is present in cells and tissues in excess. Based on the risk for liver damage the upper level for copper is 10 mg/day.

An inherited copper related disease, Wilson’s disease, results in accumulation of copper in the brain kidneys and eye cornea. It is difficult to diagnose and while it is present at birth usually detected later in childhood or adulthood. Symptoms include kidney problems and neurological and psychiatric disorders and premature death. If the condition is diagnosed and treated early, with copper binding agents, treatment can reduce both physical and mental degeneration.

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Phosphorus plays several important roles in the body as it is one of the most essential elements. Approximately 85% of phosphorus is found in the bones and teeth in the form of calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite) and the remaining in every other cell and extracellular fluids. It is a component of many enzyme systems such as DNA, RNA, ATP and part of cell membranes (phospholipids). Phosphorus is also one of the body’s important puffers for the maintenance of normal pH.

Chronic deficiency of phosphorus can result in bone loss and poor tooth development, bone pain, joint stiffness, anorexia, weakness and irritability. Foods such as meat, milk, nuts, fish, cheese and bread provide most of the needs for this mineral. The Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) for phosphorus is 700 mg/day for adults. Deficiency is unlikely in healthy adults as they usually consume twice the RDA.

Typical daily intakes are not toxic but excessive amounts can lead to health problems with individuals suffering kidney disease. Chronic imbalances in the calcium to phosphorus ratio intake in the diet can result in bone loss from high phosphorus intake. The upper level for phosphorus in adults is 3 to 4 g/day.

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Chloride is a component of hydrochloric acid that it is produced by the stomach and a part of the immune defense when white cells attack foreign cells. It helps in the removal of toxic waste such as carbon dioxide by way of air exhaled by the lungs. It also aids the preservation of joint shape and quality of tendons and helps the distribution of hormones. Highest concentrations of chloride in the body are found in the gastrointestinal tract secretions and cerebrospinal fluid.

Chloride is provided almost exclusively in the diet from sodium chloride or salt added in food preparation. Foods that are naturally good sources of chloride are ripe olives, rye, seaweed, and some fruit and vegetables. Chloride is almost completely absorbed in the small intestine and colon and excreted through the kidneys, skin and gastrointestinal tract. The minimum requirement of chloride for health is 700 mg per day. A deficiency is unlikely as intake of salt is usually too high.

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Several mechanisms to absorb this mineral are used by the body and either ferric or the naturally occurring ferrous iron are utilized. Once acted on by acid in the stomach absorption occurs primarily in the duodenum and upper jejunum. In foods the mineral occurs in several forms and differ in absorption. For example heme iron; part (40%) of hemoglobin and myoglobin molecules in animal flesh, is absorbed twice as fast as nonheme iron or elemental form. Nonheme iron is also present in animal flesh, eggs, milk, whole grains and in vegetables.

Iron plays an important role in health of the body and especially those of the immune function, temperature regulation and energy metabolism. The stores in the body influence iron absorption. When it is needed is mobilized from body stores such as liver and spleen and enters the blood. Deficiency of vitamin A may impair its release from stores. Almost 70% is found in the red blood cells. If diet or body stores can not supply sufficient amount then synthesis of hemoglobin and numbers of red blood cells falls and as a result oxygen carried in the blood is decreased.

Deficiency of iron, in which the amount of hemoglobin in red cells is reduced and therefore the carrying capacity of oxygen, results in pale skin, fatigue, difficulty with breathing, constipation, weakness and brittle nails. The most common deficiency is iron-deficiency anemia with symptoms such as fatigue, low resistance to disease and paleness.

The RDA for iron is 8 mg/day for adult men and 18 mg for adult women. The upper level is 45 mg/day. While iron is a very important mineral for health and overload is not as common as iron deficiency it can lead to toxic symptoms. A single large dose such us the upper level for iron can be life threatening to an infant.

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Approximately half of the amount consumed is added during cooking or as a table salt and the rest during food manufacturing. A low salt diet together with excessive perspiration and persistent loses of bodily fluids (vomiting and/or diarrhea) can lead to sodium depletion. It’s depletion in turn can lead to nausea, dizziness, muscular cramps, shock and even coma. However the likelihood of this happening is very slim as people generally eat too much salt. Only when weight lose from perspiration exceeds 2 to 3% or 2 to 3 kg of total body weight sodium losses can be a concern.

Sodium is an essential element for animal life. It is classified as a “dietary inorganic macro-mineral. The daily need of sodium is about 100 mg a day. Food labeling rules under FDA for daily volume is 2400mg. Almost all foods naturally contain some salt. According to American Heart association adults consume 4 to 7 g a day two or more times that of the recommended amount.

Most humans adapt to various amounts of sodium intake, although it can contribute to high blood pressure in some people. High intake of this element can be toxic if kidneys can not excrete excess in the urine. There is not an upper level for sodium. The common salt or NaCl (Sodium Chloride) is composed of the minerals sodium and chloride.

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Potassium is a major cation inside the cells and intracellular fluid contains 95% of the potassium in the body. It is important for normal growth, preserve proper alkalinity in the body fluids, assist in the conversion of glucose to glycogen, synthesis of muscle protein from amino acids and influence contractility of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle. Potassium works together with phosphorus to supply the brain with oxygen and with calcium to regulate neuromuscular activity.

Potassium is absorbed by the small intestines; the body absorbs approximately 90% of the potassium consumed. It is excreted mostly through urine and perspiration. The minimum potassium requirement for adults is 2000 mg per day and low blood potassium is a life threatening problem. Potassium in supplement forms is harmless if the kidneys function normally. However excessive potassium build up may result from poorly functioning kidneys creating a condition called hyperkalemia.

Potassium and sodium concentrations in the body must be balanced and it is usually excessive intake of sodium in the diet that can deplete the often low potassium supply.
Excess coffee and tee and diuretics increase excretion of potassium in the urine. Alcohol consumption also leads in potassium deficiency but also magnesium. Magnesium is needed for the retention of potassium inside the cells. Lack of potassium in the body increases the sodium content in the heart and muscles.

Deficiency of potassium can also be caused by malnutrition, athletes who exercise heavily and long periods of time and excessive vomiting. Symptoms include sagging muscles, general weakness, dry skin, insomnia and irregular heart beat. People should consume foods rich in potassium such as legumes, whole grains, potatoes, orange juice, tomatoes and milk, fruit and vegetables to compensate for potentially low body potassium.

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When absorption take place into intestinal cells a protein, metallothionein, binds zinc in similar way that ferritin binds iron and partly regulates its absorption. The largest stores of this trace mineral in the body are found in the pancreas, liver, voluntary muscles, and bones. It is also found in the eyes, skin, prostate gland, hair nails, and white blood cells. However, the absorbed amounts of the mineral in the body are classified as functional zinc and amounts held in storage are very small.

Zinc intakes are generally low worldwide. While insufficient dietary intake may be the cause of poor zinc status in some cases the most likely causative factor in depleted zinc status are inhibitors of its absorption. A high intake of phytic acid found in grains and high intake of calcium both decease absorption of this mineral. Some milk proteins have been shown to inhibit its absorption. Finally zinc competes with copper and iron in the body for absorption.

Zinc is present in every cell in the body and has many and diverse biological functions. More than 100 require zinc for optimal activity. The mineral supports many body functions such as: Protein metabolism, immune function, general growth, wound healing and burns, synthesis and function of nucleic acid, development of sexual organs, insulin function cell membranes structure and function and behavioral development in infants.
Severe deficiency is not common but marginal deficiency of zinc is and it is difficult to diagnose.

The signs and symptoms of deficiency are nonspecific and can include increased fatigue, decreased alertness, and inadequate growth, declined immune function, acne, delayed wound healing, decreased production of lymphocytes and decreased B and T lymphocyte responses. A high intake of this mineral interferes with copper and iron metabolism and increases the need for vitamin A intake.

The RDA for zinc is 11 mg/day for men and 8 mg/day for women and the upper level is 40 mg/day. In general protein rich diets are rich in zinc also. Foods with high content are oysters shrimp, beef, turkey, legumes. Nuts, whole grains, wheat germ and pumpkin seeds can provide substantial amounts. While food sources for zinc are the preferred sources, zinc supplements shown to be effective to maintain zinc status in those at risk of deficiency.

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